A Victorian Epidemic
In the early 1800s and during the reign of Queen Victoria, murder by arsenic poisoning was epidemic in England.
White arsenic, or arsenic trioxide (As₂O₃), is a metallic oxide that was widely used in the 19th century. It served multiple purposes: as a pesticide to kill vermin and insects, a herbicide, a tonic, a component in medicines, in agriculture as a sheep dip, and even in wallpaper. It was very cheap, odourless, soluble in water, largely tasteless, and freely available up to 1851 (see below).
Symptoms and Misdiagnosis
When ingested with food, arsenic produced symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhoea, and severe stomach cramps, which were often indistinguishable from English cholera and gastroenteritis.
Cholera epidemics were not uncommon during this time, with major outbreaks in:
- 1831–1832
- 1848–1849
- 1853–1854
- 1866
These outbreaks killed approximately 140,000 people in total.
When taken in small quantities, arsenic is not immediately lethal, but its effects are cumulative, building up in the body over time. In larger doses, it is fatal—though not quickly. Death typically occurred over several hours.
Where death occurred under seemingly normal circumstances, doctors often certified the cause as cholera and did not order an autopsy. Thus, arsenic became the “weapon of choice,” especially among women, who could obtain a sufficient quantity for two old pence (1p) to eliminate unwanted children, husbands, or relatives—and often get away with it.
It is impossible to know how many cases of arsenic poisoning went undetected.
Forensic Breakthroughs in Detection
Early Limitations
Up to 1836, there was no reliable method of detecting arsenic. While earlier test methods were devised by:
- Carl Scheele (1775)
- Johann Metzger
- Valentin Rose
- Samuel Hahnemann
These were not ideal or sufficiently accurate.
The Marsh Test
In 1836, James Marsh, a chemist at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, published a paper detailing a precise methodology for:
- Detecting traces of arsenic
- Measuring the actual quantity found
Marsh had worked on the James Boodle case in 1832. Boodle was acquitted due to lack of good forensic evidence, though he later admitted to poisoning his grandfather’s coffee.
The Marsh Test became the standard forensic procedure. It was extremely sensitive, capable of detecting as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. Samples tested included food, drink, stomach contents, and tissue.
The Reinsch Test
In 1841, German chemist Hugo Reinsch introduced a simpler test. His method involved:
- Using hydrochloric acid solution
- Depositing metallic arsenic on copper foil
This test could be applied to liquids containing organic matter, making it easier than Marsh’s method in many cases.
Arsenic and the Rise of Female Poisoners
Expertise and Prosecution
As these forensic methods became more widely used, expertise developed in the newly opened teaching hospitals, providing expert witnesses to assist prosecutors. As is often the case, detection became more of a deterrent than punishment, and the number of arsenic poisonings began to decline.
Execution Statistics (1843–1852)
In the decade from 1843 to 1852, 22 women were hanged in England and Wales. 17 of these were arsenic poisoners, several of whom were serial killers.
Executed Women Arsenic Poisoners
| Date Hanged | Name | Age | Place | Crime for Which Executed | Other Probable Victims |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10/08/1835 | Frances Billing & Catherine Frary | 46 & 40 | Norwich Castle | Murders of Harriet Southgate and Robert Frary | — |
| 06/05/1843 | Betty Eccles | 38 | Liverpool | Murder of her stepson William | Two daughters: Alice (10) and Nancy (6) |
| 05/08/1843 | Sarah Dazley | 24 | Bedford | Murder of her husband | Previous husband and her son |
| 13/01/1844 | Sarah Westwood | 42 | Stafford | Murder of her husband | None |
| 02/08/1844 | Eliza Joyce | 31 | Lincoln Castle | Murder of her stepson William | Stepdaughter Emma and daughter Ann |
| 28/12/1844 | Mary Gallop | 20 | Chester | Murder of her father | None |
| 11/01/1845 | Mary Sheming | 51 | Ipswich | Murder of her infant grandson | None |
| 23/04/1845 | Sarah Freeman | 28 | Taunton | Murder of her brother Charles | Husband Henry, son James, and mother Mary |
| 17/04/1847 | Catherine Foster | 18 | Bury St Edmunds | Murder of her husband John | None |
| 30/07/1847 | Mary Ann Milner | 27 | Lincoln Castle | Murder of sister-in-law | Confessed to poisoning three other relatives |
| 14/08/1848 | Mary May | 38 | Chelmsford | Murder of her half-brother William Constable | None proven |
| 09/08/1849 | Mary Ball | 31 | Coventry | Murder of her husband | None |
| 21/08/1849 | Mary Ann Geering | 49 | Lewes | Murder of her husband | Two adult sons |
| 23/08/1849 | Rebecca Smith | 44 | Devizes | Murder of her infant son | Confessed to poisoning seven of her children |
| 13/04/1850 | Mary Reeder | 20 | Cambridge | Murder of sister Susan Lucas | None |
| 25/03/1851 | Sarah Chesham | 42 | Chelmsford | Attempted murder of husband | Possibly two sons and another child |
| 19/08/1851 | Mary Cage | 40 | Ipswich | Murder of her husband | None proven |
| 10/04/1852 | Sarah Ann French | 27 | Lewes | Murder of her husband | None |
Note: Mary Milner hanged herself on the eve of her execution but is included here, as no reprieve was granted and all preparations had been made.
Out of 97 executions in England and Wales during this period, women accounted for 22.6%, the highest proportion ever recorded.
Legal Reform: The Sale of Arsenic Regulation Bill
The growing number of female poisoners—especially Sarah Chesham, dubbed “Sally Arsenic” by the media—finally captured the attention of Parliament.
Introduction of New Regulations
In early 1851, after sustained media pressure, the Earl of Carlisle introduced the Sale of Arsenic Regulation Bill, which proposed the following measures:
- Suppliers had to keep a register of purchases:
- Name of the buyer
- Amount purchased
- Purpose of use
- Purchaser had to sign the register
- Sellers could only sell to known individuals or those accompanied by a witness (who also had to sign)
- Arsenic had to be coloured for normal-sized purchases to prevent the defense of accidental use
- Uncoloured (white) arsenic could only be bought in commercial amounts (minimum of 10 lbs)
Legislative Approval
The Bill received House of Lords approval the day before Sarah Chesham was hanged. Although it was originally to include a clause banning women from purchasing arsenic, this was later dropped.
Support the Archive
If you have found this article useful and would like to help preserve and maintain this historical archive, please consider supporting the site.